Shopping on line can be easy, simple and save you lots of money. It can also take a lot of your time, frustrate you, and result in unwanted purchases. Now the same can be said for regular high street shopping, but with the vast opportunity presented by the Internet it will pay you to spend a few minutes reading this and understanding how to better optimize your Reduplication shopping experience:

1. Compare - without doubt the biggest advantage that the Reduplication offers shoppers today is the ability to compare thousands of Reduplication at a time. This is a great thing, but not necessarily all the time! Too much can be daunting at times so take advantage of the great comparison sites and where possible let them do the hard work for you.

2. Research - if it has been said it will be on the internet. Ignorance is no longer a justifiable reason for buying the wrong thing. Take the time to research in detail everything that you could possible want to know about

3. Testimonials - don't know anybody that has bought a Reduplication? Wrong! If the Reduplication is good the internet will let you know. Use the Internet as a friend and get testimonials before you buy.

4. Questions - Got a question about Reduplication then search the Forums, FAQ's, Blogs etc. Don't be afraid to ask .....

5. Reputation - Never heard of the company selling Reduplication? Don't worry, no reason why you should know every company in the world, but you know someone that does! Use the internet to find out what people are saying about Reduplication and build up a picture of their reputation for sales, returns, customer service, delivery etc.

6. Returns - still worried that even after all of the above your Reduplication wont be what you want? Check out the returns policy. There is so much competition now that someone, somewhere is bound to offer the terms that you are comfortable with.

7. Feedback - happy with your Reduplication then let people know, after all you are depending on others people input in your buying decision, so why not give a little back.

8. Security - check for the yellow padlock on the Reduplication site before you buy, and the s after http:/ /i.e. https:// = a secure site

9. Contact - got a question about Reduplication, or want to leave a comment then check out the sites contact page. Reputable companies have them and respond.

10. Payment - ready to pay for your Reduplication, then use your credit card or PayPal! Be aware of companies that don't accept them, there may be genuine reasons but given the huge amount of choice you have when buying online there is no reason at all not to buy via credit card or PayPal.

Reduplication, in linguistics, is a morphology (linguistics) process by which the root (linguistics) or Stem (linguistics) of a word, or only part of it, is repeated.

Reduplication is used both in inflections to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in lexical Derivation (linguistics) to create new words. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more "expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively, Iconicity in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of linguistic productivity (linguistics) varies.

Typological description Form Reduplication is often described Phonology in one of two different ways: either (1) as reduplicated segments (sequences of consonants/vowels) or (2) as reduplicated Prosody (linguistics) units (syllables or mora (linguistics)s). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described Morphology (linguistics) as a reduplication of linguistic Constituent (linguistics) (i.e. Word (linguistics), Stem (linguistics), Root (linguistics)). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology.

The base is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the reduplicant, often abbreviated as RED or sometimes just R.

In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a duple as in most reduplication. Triplication is the term for this phenomenon of copying three times. Pingelapese has both reduplication and triplication.

{], Shipibo language, Twi language, Mokilese language, Min Nan.

Sometimes gemination (i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term dupleme has been used (after morpheme) to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning.

Full and partial reduplication Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, Kham derives reciprocal forms from Reflexive pronoun forms by total reduplication:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | 'ourselves'| →| | 'we (to) us'| |-|  |  | | 'themselves'| →| | 'they (to) them'| | (Watters 2002)|}

Another example is from Musqueam Halkomelem "dispositional" Grammatical aspect formation:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | 'to capsize'| →| | 'likely to capsize'| |-|  |  | | 'to speak'| →| | 'talkative'| | (Shaw 2004)|}

Partial reduplication involves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example, Marshallese language forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) sequence of a base, i.e. base+CVC:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | kagir| 'belt'| →| kagirgir| 'to wear a belt'| (kagir-gir)|-|  |  | takin| 'sock'| →| takinkin| 'to wear socks'| (takin-kin)| (Moravsik 1978)|}

Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the Motu language example below:

{| class="wikitable"! Base Verb! Full reduplication! Partial reduplication|-| mahuta  'to sleep'| mahutamahuta  'to sleep constantly'| mamahuta  'to sleep (plural)'|-|  | (mahuta-mahuta)| (ma-mahuta)|}

Reduplicant position Reduplication may be initial (i.e. Prefix (linguistics)al), final (i.e. suffixal), or internal (i.e. infixal), e.g.

Initial reduplication in Agta (CV- prefix):{] (-CCV suffix):{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | 'tall (singular)'| →| | 'tall (plural)'| (hãska-ska)|-|  |  | | 'good (singular)'| →| | 'good (plural)'| | (Shaw 1980, Marantz 1982, Albright 2002)|}

Internal reduplication in Samoan language (-CV- infix):{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | savali| 'they walk'| →| savavali| 'he walks'| (sa-va-vali)|-|  |  | alofa| 'they love'| →| alolofa| 'he loves'| (a-lo-lofa)| (Moravcsik 1978, Broselow and McCarthy 1984)|}

Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types.

Copying direction A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (left-to-right copying) or from the right edge (right-to-left copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left:

Initial L → R copying in Oykangand Kunjen (a Pama-Nyungan languages language of Australia):{]:{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | achisia| →| achisiasia| 'I cut'| (achisia-sia)|-|  |  | ñimbuchao| →| ñimbuchaochao| 'to come apart'| (ñimbuchao-chao)| (McCarthy and Prince 1996)|}

Copying from the other direction is possible although less common:

Initial R → L copying in Tillamook language:{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | 'eye'| →| | 'eyes'| |-|  |  | | 'break'| →| | 'they break'| | (Reichard 1959)|}

Final L → R copying in Chukchi language:{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | nute-| 'ground'| →| nutenut| 'ground (abs. sg.)'| (nute-nut)|-|  |  | | 'gopher'| →| | 'gopher (abs. sg.)'| | (Marantz 1982)|}

Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base.

Internal L → R copying in Quileute:{] (an Austro-Asiatic language of Malaysia):{] (an Austro-Asiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | →| | 'to vomit'| |-|  |  | | →| | 'appearance of nodding constantly'| |-|  |  | | →| | 'monsoon rain'| | (Diffloth 1973, in Albright 2002)|}

====Reduplication and other processes====

All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as elision, affixation of non-reduplicating material, etc.

For instance, in Tz'utujil a new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment . This can be written succinctly as . Below are some examples:

* 'red' → 'reddish'   * 'yellow' → 'yellowish'   * 'water' → 'watery'     (Dayley 1985)

Somali language has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: -aC (where C is the last consonant of the base):

* 'ditch' → 'ditches'   * 'lump of meat' → 'lumps of meat'   * 'boy' → 'boys'     (Abraham 1964)

(One linguist has used the word duplifix to refer to this combination of reduplication and affixation.)

In Tohono O'odham initial reduplication also involves gemination of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs:

* 'ox' → 'ox (distributive)'  (no-n-nowiu) * 'rock' → 'rock (distributive)'  (ho-h-hodai) * 'dig out of ground (unitative)' → 'dig out of ground (repetitive)'  (ko-k-kow) * 'hit (unitative)' → 'hit (repetitive)'     (Haugen forthcoming)

Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication.

Function and meaning In the Malayo-Polynesian family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions): *Malay language rumah "house", rumah-rumah "houses".

In pre-1972 Indonesian language and Malay language orthography, 2 was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: orang "person", orang-orang or orang2 "people" The Malay Spelling Reform, Asmah Haji Omar, (Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society, 1989-2 pp.9-13 later designated J11).

The Nama language uses reduplication to increase the force of a verb: go, "look;", go-go "examine with attention".

Chinese language also uses reduplication: 人 rén for "person", 人人 rénrén for "everybody". Japanese language does it too: 時 toki "time", tokidoki 時々 "sometimes, from time to time". Both languages can use a special written iteration mark 々 to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in Calligraphy.

Indo-European languages formerly used reduplication to form a number of verb forms, especially in the preterite or Perfect aspect tenses. In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive:

*spondeo, spopondi (Latin, "I vow, I vowed") * (Greek language, "I leave, I left") * (Greek, "I see, I saw"; these Greek examples exhibit ablaut as well as reduplication) *háitan, haíháit (Gothic language, "to name, I named")

None of these sorts of forms survive in modern English, although they existed in its parent Germanic languages. A number of verbs in the Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the present tense stem rather than the perfect stem: Latin gigno, genui ("I beget, I begat") is a surviving example. Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process; compare Latin sto ("I stand") and sisto ("I remain"). All of these Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws.

Recent Finnish language uses reduplicated nouns to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. E.g. Söin viisi jäätelöä, pullapitkon ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa. "I ate five choc-ices, a long loaf of coffee bread and candy, and of course food-food". Here, the "food-food" is contrasted to the "junk-food" -- the principal role of food is nutrition, and "junkfood" isn't nutritious, so "food-food" is nutritious food, exclusively.

* ruoka "food", ruokaruoka "proper food", as opposed to snacks * peli "game", pelipeli "complete game",as opposed to a mod * puhelin "phone", puhelinpuhelin "phone for talking", as opposed to a pocket computer * kauas "far away", kauaskauas "unquestionably far away"

These sorts of reduplicative forms, such as "food-food," are not merely literal translations of the Finnish but in fact have some frequency in contemporary English for emphasising, as in Finnish, an "authentic" form of a certain thing. "Food-food" is one of the most common, along with such a possibilities for "car-car" to describe a vehicle which is actually a car (small automobile) and not something else such as a truck, or "house-house," for a stand-alone house structure as opposed to an apartment, for instance.

In Swiss German, the verbs gah or goh "go", cho "come", la or lo "let" and aafa or aafo "begin" reduplicate when combined with other verbs.{|!example:|Si|chunt|üse|Chrischtboum|cho|schmücke.|-!literal translation:|she|comes|our|Christmas tree|come|adorn|-!translation| colspan=6 | She comes to adorn our Christmas tree.|}{|!example:|Si|lat|ne|nid|la|schlafe.|-!literal translation:|she|lets|him|not|let|sleep|-!translation:| colspan=6 | She doesn't let him sleep.|}

Examples Indo-European Common Indo-European The Proto-Indo-European language used partial reduplication in perfect tense forms of verb roots. This is also present in Ancient Greek#Reduplication, e.g. λύω (I free) => λέλυκα (I have freed).

The Proto-Indo-European word qwqwlós = "wheel" (cfr. Greek Κύκλος, kyklos = "circle") has reduplication, likely for onomatopoeia.

English reduplication English uses some kinds of reduplication, mostly for informal expressive vocabulary. There are three types:

Although at first glance "Abracadabra" appears to be an English rhyming reduplication it in fact is not; instead, it is derived from the Aramaic language formula "Abəra kaDavəra" meaning "I would create as I spoke") Couscous is not an English example for reduplication, since it is taken from a French word which has a maghrebi origin.

In the ablaut reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a high vowel and the reduplicated ablaut variant of the vowel is a low vowel. There is also a tendency for the first vowel to be front and the second vowel to be back.

None of the above types are particularly productive, meaning that the sets are fairly fixed and new forms are not easily accepted, but there is another form of reduplication that is used as a deprecative called shm-reduplication (or schm-reduplication) that can be used with most any word; e.g. baby-shmaby or car-shmar. This process comes to American English from Yiddish.

Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun is Stress (linguistics)) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort of Platonic idealism of the noun. This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned above. An extensive list of such examples is found in .

More can be learned about English reduplication in Thun (1963), Cooper and Ross (1975), and Nevins and Vaux (2003).

Afrikaans reduplication Afrikaans regularly utilizes reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated. For example, krap means "to scratch one's self," while krap-krap-krap means "to scratch one's self vigorously."

Reduplication is not present in Dutch language, the parent language of Afrikaans, except in cases of interjections.

Romance languages Lingua Franca Common in Mediterranean Lingua Franca, particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions:"Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar." ("The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it.")

French A common use for reduplication in French is the creation of hypocoristics for French names, thus Louise becomes Loulou, and Zinedine Zidane becomes Zizou.

Romanian In Romanian, reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many from onomatopoeia), for example, mormăi, ţurţur, dârdâi, and for expressions, like talmeş-balmeş, harcea-parcea, terchea-berchea, ţac-pac, calea-valea, hodoronc-tronc, or in more recent slang, trendy-flendy.

Slavic languages Russian language The reduplication in Russian language serves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: a hyphenated or repeated word (either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar to shm-reduplication.

Turkish In Turkish language, a word can be reduplicated while replacing the initial consonants (not being m, and possibly missing) with m. The effect is that the meaning of the original word is broadened. For example, tabak means "plate(s)", and tabak mabak then means "plates, dishes and such". This can be applied not only to nouns but to all kinds of words, as in yeşil meşil meaning "green, greenish, whatever".

Reduplication in Bantu Languages Reduplication is a common phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to form a frequentive verb or for emphasis.,

Popular names that have reduplication include

Chinese Adjective reduplication is common in Standard Mandarin, typically denoting emphasis, less acute degree of the quality described, or an attempt at more indirect speech: xiaoxiao de 小小的 (small), chouchou de 臭臭的 (smelly). In case of adjectives composed of two characters (morphemes), each character is reduplicated separately: piaoliang 漂亮 (beautiful) reduplicates as piaopiaoliangliang 漂漂亮亮.

Verb reduplication is also common in Standard Mandarin, conveying the meaning of informal and temporary character of the action. It is often used in imperative expressions, in which it lessens the degree of imperativity: zuozuo 坐坐 (sit (for a while)), dengdeng 等等 (wait (for a while)). Compound verbs are reduplicated as a whole word: xiuxixiuxi 休息休息 (rest (for a while)).

Noun reduplication is found in the southwestern dialect of Mandarin (linguistics), which is nearly absent in standard Mandarin (Guoyu). For instance, in Sichuan, baobao 包包 (handbag) is used whereas Beijing and Guoyu use bao'r 包儿. However, there are few nouns that can be reduplicated in Standard Mandarin, and reduplication denotes generalisation and uniformity: ren 人 (human being) and renren 人人 (everybody (in general, in common)), jiajiahuhu 家家户户 (every household (uniformly)) - in the latter jia and hu additionally duplicate the meaning of household, which is a common way of creating compound words in Chinese.

Japanese A small number of native Japanese language nouns have collective number forms produced by reduplication (possibly with rendaku). This formation is not productivity (linguistics) and is limited to a small set of nouns. Similarly to Standard Mandarin, the meaning is not that of a true plural, but collectives that refer to a large, given set of the same object.

Japanese also contains a large number of Japanese sound symbolism formed by reduplication of a syllable. These words include not only onomatopoeia, but also words intended to invoke non-auditory senses or psychological states.

Vietnamese Words called từ láy are found abundantly in Vietnamese. They are formed by repeating a part of a word to form new words, altering the meaning of the original word. Its effect is to sometimes either increase or decrease the intensity of the adjective, and is often used as a literary device (like alliteration) in poetry and other compositions, as well as in everyday speech.

Examples of reduplication increasing intensity:

Examples of reduplication decreasing intensity:

Nepalese A number of Nepalese nouns are formed by reduplication. As in other languages, the meaning is not that of a true plural, but collectives that refer to a set of the same or related objects, often in a particular situation.

For example, "rangi changi"* describes an object that is extremely or vividly colorful, like a crazy mix of colors and/or patterns, perhaps dizzying to the eye. The phrase "hina mina" means "scattered," like a large collection of objects spilled (or scampering, as in small animals) in all different directions. The basic Nepalese word for food, "khana" becomes "khana sana" to refer to the broad generality of anything served at a meal. Likewise, "chiya" or tea (conventionally made with milk and sugar) becomes "chiya siya": tea and snacks (such as biscuits or cookies). *Please note, these examples of Nepalese words are spelled with a simplified Latin transliteration only, not as exact spellings.

Malay and Indonesian In Malay language and Indonesian language, reduplication of a noun indicates the plural. For example, buku, meaning "book", when reduplicated as buku-buku (also written as buku²) means "books". Another example is anak for child and 'anak-anak' for children.

Reduplication of an adjective is also used to indicate plurality of the corresponding noun. For example: "Rumah di sini besar" means "The house here is big", while "Rumah di sini besar-besar" means "The houses here are big".

Sometimes, reduplication of nouns becomes adjectives in Indonesian. For examples,"om" 'uncle' as in "Gaya Ardi seperti om-om" means 'the Ardi's attitute is like an uncle', "orang-orang" 'people' means 'something like person behaviour'.

Farsi (Persian) Reduplication is a very common practice in Farsi, to the extent that there are jokes about it. Reduplication is particularly common in the city of Shiraz (SW of the country). One can further categorize the reduplicative words into "True" and "Quasi" ones. In true reduplicative words, both words are actually real words and have meaning in the language in which it is used. In quasi-reduplicative words, at least one of the words does not have a meaning. Some examples of true reduplicative words in Farsi are (using the best my knowledge in phonetics): "Khert-o-Pert" (Odds and ends); "Chert-o-Pert" (Nonsense); "Charand-o-Parand" (animals and birds); "Aab-o-Taab" (much detail). Among the quasi-reduplicative words are "Zan-o-man" (wife); "Daava-Maava" (Argument); "Tala-mala" (jewelry); and "Dari-Vari" (none-sense talk).

Khmer Khmer language uses reduplication for several purposes, including emphasis and pluralization. Khmer also uses a form of reduplication known as "synonym compounding", in which two phonologically distinct words with similar or identical meanings are combined, either to form the same term or to form a new term altogther.

Reduplicated babbling During the period 25-50 weeks after birth, all typically developing infants go through a stage of reduplicated or canonical babbling (Stark 198, Oller, 1980). Canonical babbling is characterized by repetition of identical or nearly identical consonant vowel combinations, such as 'nanana' or 'didididi'. It appears as a progression of language development as infants experiment with their vocal apparatus and home in on the sounds used in their native language. Canonical/reduplicated babbling also appears at a time when general rhythmic behavior, such as rhythmic hand banging and rhythmic kicking, appear. Canonical babbling is distinguished from earlier syllabic and vocal play, which has less of a structure.

See also

External links

Bibliography

Reduplication, in linguistics, is a morphology (linguistics) process by which the root (linguistics) or Stem (linguistics) of a word, or only part of it, is repeated.

Reduplication is used both in inflections to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in lexical Derivation (linguistics) to create new words. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more "expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively, Iconicity in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of linguistic productivity (linguistics) varies.

Typological description Form Reduplication is often described Phonology in one of two different ways: either (1) as reduplicated segments (sequences of consonants/vowels) or (2) as reduplicated Prosody (linguistics) units (syllables or mora (linguistics)s). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described Morphology (linguistics) as a reduplication of linguistic Constituent (linguistics) (i.e. Word (linguistics), Stem (linguistics), Root (linguistics)). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology.

The base is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the reduplicant, often abbreviated as RED or sometimes just R.

In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a duple as in most reduplication. Triplication is the term for this phenomenon of copying three times. Pingelapese has both reduplication and triplication.

{], Shipibo language, Twi language, Mokilese language, Min Nan.

Sometimes gemination (i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term dupleme has been used (after morpheme) to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning.

Full and partial reduplication Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, Kham derives reciprocal forms from Reflexive pronoun forms by total reduplication:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | 'ourselves'| →| | 'we (to) us'| |-|  |  | | 'themselves'| →| | 'they (to) them'| | (Watters 2002)|}

Another example is from Musqueam Halkomelem "dispositional" Grammatical aspect formation:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | 'to capsize'| →| | 'likely to capsize'| |-|  |  | | 'to speak'| →| | 'talkative'| | (Shaw 2004)|}

Partial reduplication involves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example, Marshallese language forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) sequence of a base, i.e. base+CVC:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | kagir| 'belt'| →| kagirgir| 'to wear a belt'| (kagir-gir)|-|  |  | takin| 'sock'| →| takinkin| 'to wear socks'| (takin-kin)| (Moravsik 1978)|}

Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the Motu language example below:

{| class="wikitable"! Base Verb! Full reduplication! Partial reduplication|-| mahuta  'to sleep'| mahutamahuta  'to sleep constantly'| mamahuta  'to sleep (plural)'|-|  | (mahuta-mahuta)| (ma-mahuta)|}

Reduplicant position Reduplication may be initial (i.e. Prefix (linguistics)al), final (i.e. suffixal), or internal (i.e. infixal), e.g.

Initial reduplication in Agta (CV- prefix):{] (-CCV suffix):{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | 'tall (singular)'| →| | 'tall (plural)'| (hãska-ska)|-|  |  | | 'good (singular)'| →| | 'good (plural)'| | (Shaw 1980, Marantz 1982, Albright 2002)|}

Internal reduplication in Samoan language (-CV- infix):{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | savali| 'they walk'| →| savavali| 'he walks'| (sa-va-vali)|-|  |  | alofa| 'they love'| →| alolofa| 'he loves'| (a-lo-lofa)| (Moravcsik 1978, Broselow and McCarthy 1984)|}

Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types.

Copying direction A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (left-to-right copying) or from the right edge (right-to-left copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left:

Initial L → R copying in Oykangand Kunjen (a Pama-Nyungan languages language of Australia):{]:{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | achisia| →| achisiasia| 'I cut'| (achisia-sia)|-|  |  | ñimbuchao| →| ñimbuchaochao| 'to come apart'| (ñimbuchao-chao)| (McCarthy and Prince 1996)|}

Copying from the other direction is possible although less common:

Initial R → L copying in Tillamook language:{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | 'eye'| →| | 'eyes'| |-|  |  | | 'break'| →| | 'they break'| | (Reichard 1959)|}

Final L → R copying in Chukchi language:{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | nute-| 'ground'| →| nutenut| 'ground (abs. sg.)'| (nute-nut)|-|  |  | | 'gopher'| →| | 'gopher (abs. sg.)'| | (Marantz 1982)|}

Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base.

Internal L → R copying in Quileute:{] (an Austro-Asiatic language of Malaysia):{] (an Austro-Asiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"|-|  |  | | →| | 'to vomit'| |-|  |  | | →| | 'appearance of nodding constantly'| |-|  |  | | →| | 'monsoon rain'| | (Diffloth 1973, in Albright 2002)|}

====Reduplication and other processes====

All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as elision, affixation of non-reduplicating material, etc.

For instance, in Tz'utujil a new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment . This can be written succinctly as . Below are some examples:

* 'red' → 'reddish'   * 'yellow' → 'yellowish'   * 'water' → 'watery'     (Dayley 1985)

Somali language has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: -aC (where C is the last consonant of the base):

* 'ditch' → 'ditches'   * 'lump of meat' → 'lumps of meat'   * 'boy' → 'boys'     (Abraham 1964)

(One linguist has used the word duplifix to refer to this combination of reduplication and affixation.)

In Tohono O'odham initial reduplication also involves gemination of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs:

* 'ox' → 'ox (distributive)'  (no-n-nowiu) * 'rock' → 'rock (distributive)'  (ho-h-hodai) * 'dig out of ground (unitative)' → 'dig out of ground (repetitive)'  (ko-k-kow) * 'hit (unitative)' → 'hit (repetitive)'     (Haugen forthcoming)

Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication.

Function and meaning In the Malayo-Polynesian family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions): *Malay language rumah "house", rumah-rumah "houses".

In pre-1972 Indonesian language and Malay language orthography, 2 was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: orang "person", orang-orang or orang2 "people" The Malay Spelling Reform, Asmah Haji Omar, (Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society, 1989-2 pp.9-13 later designated J11).

The Nama language uses reduplication to increase the force of a verb: go, "look;", go-go "examine with attention".

Chinese language also uses reduplication: 人 rén for "person", 人人 rénrén for "everybody". Japanese language does it too: 時 toki "time", tokidoki 時々 "sometimes, from time to time". Both languages can use a special written iteration mark 々 to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in Calligraphy.

Indo-European languages formerly used reduplication to form a number of verb forms, especially in the preterite or Perfect aspect tenses. In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive:

*spondeo, spopondi (Latin, "I vow, I vowed") * (Greek language, "I leave, I left") * (Greek, "I see, I saw"; these Greek examples exhibit ablaut as well as reduplication) *háitan, haíháit (Gothic language, "to name, I named")

None of these sorts of forms survive in modern English, although they existed in its parent Germanic languages. A number of verbs in the Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the present tense stem rather than the perfect stem: Latin gigno, genui ("I beget, I begat") is a surviving example. Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process; compare Latin sto ("I stand") and sisto ("I remain"). All of these Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws.

Recent Finnish language uses reduplicated nouns to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. E.g. Söin viisi jäätelöä, pullapitkon ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa. "I ate five choc-ices, a long loaf of coffee bread and candy, and of course food-food". Here, the "food-food" is contrasted to the "junk-food" -- the principal role of food is nutrition, and "junkfood" isn't nutritious, so "food-food" is nutritious food, exclusively.

* ruoka "food", ruokaruoka "proper food", as opposed to snacks * peli "game", pelipeli "complete game",as opposed to a mod * puhelin "phone", puhelinpuhelin "phone for talking", as opposed to a pocket computer * kauas "far away", kauaskauas "unquestionably far away"

These sorts of reduplicative forms, such as "food-food," are not merely literal translations of the Finnish but in fact have some frequency in contemporary English for emphasising, as in Finnish, an "authentic" form of a certain thing. "Food-food" is one of the most common, along with such a possibilities for "car-car" to describe a vehicle which is actually a car (small automobile) and not something else such as a truck, or "house-house," for a stand-alone house structure as opposed to an apartment, for instance.

In Swiss German, the verbs gah or goh "go", cho "come", la or lo "let" and aafa or aafo "begin" reduplicate when combined with other verbs.{|!example:|Si|chunt|üse|Chrischtboum|cho|schmücke.|-!literal translation:|she|comes|our|Christmas tree|come|adorn|-!translation| colspan=6 | She comes to adorn our Christmas tree.|}{|!example:|Si|lat|ne|nid|la|schlafe.|-!literal translation:|she|lets|him|not|let|sleep|-!translation:| colspan=6 | She doesn't let him sleep.|}

Examples Indo-European Common Indo-European The Proto-Indo-European language used partial reduplication in perfect tense forms of verb roots. This is also present in Ancient Greek#Reduplication, e.g. λύω (I free) => λέλυκα (I have freed).

The Proto-Indo-European word qwqwlós = "wheel" (cfr. Greek Κύκλος, kyklos = "circle") has reduplication, likely for onomatopoeia.

English reduplication English uses some kinds of reduplication, mostly for informal expressive vocabulary. There are three types:

Although at first glance "Abracadabra" appears to be an English rhyming reduplication it in fact is not; instead, it is derived from the Aramaic language formula "Abəra kaDavəra" meaning "I would create as I spoke") Couscous is not an English example for reduplication, since it is taken from a French word which has a maghrebi origin.

In the ablaut reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a high vowel and the reduplicated ablaut variant of the vowel is a low vowel. There is also a tendency for the first vowel to be front and the second vowel to be back.

None of the above types are particularly productive, meaning that the sets are fairly fixed and new forms are not easily accepted, but there is another form of reduplication that is used as a deprecative called shm-reduplication (or schm-reduplication) that can be used with most any word; e.g. baby-shmaby or car-shmar. This process comes to American English from Yiddish.

Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun is Stress (linguistics)) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort of Platonic idealism of the noun. This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned above. An extensive list of such examples is found in .

More can be learned about English reduplication in Thun (1963), Cooper and Ross (1975), and Nevins and Vaux (2003).

Afrikaans reduplication Afrikaans regularly utilizes reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated. For example, krap means "to scratch one's self," while krap-krap-krap means "to scratch one's self vigorously."

Reduplication is not present in Dutch language, the parent language of Afrikaans, except in cases of interjections.

Romance languages Lingua Franca Common in Mediterranean Lingua Franca, particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions:"Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar." ("The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it.")

French A common use for reduplication in French is the creation of hypocoristics for French names, thus Louise becomes Loulou, and Zinedine Zidane becomes Zizou.

Romanian In Romanian, reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many from onomatopoeia), for example, mormăi, ţurţur, dârdâi, and for expressions, like talmeş-balmeş, harcea-parcea, terchea-berchea, ţac-pac, calea-valea, hodoronc-tronc, or in more recent slang, trendy-flendy.

Slavic languages Russian language The reduplication in Russian language serves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: a hyphenated or repeated word (either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar to shm-reduplication.

Turkish In Turkish language, a word can be reduplicated while replacing the initial consonants (not being m, and possibly missing) with m. The effect is that the meaning of the original word is broadened. For example, tabak means "plate(s)", and tabak mabak then means "plates, dishes and such". This can be applied not only to nouns but to all kinds of words, as in yeşil meşil meaning "green, greenish, whatever".

Reduplication in Bantu Languages Reduplication is a common phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to form a frequentive verb or for emphasis.,

Popular names that have reduplication include

Chinese Adjective reduplication is common in Standard Mandarin, typically denoting emphasis, less acute degree of the quality described, or an attempt at more indirect speech: xiaoxiao de 小小的 (small), chouchou de 臭臭的 (smelly). In case of adjectives composed of two characters (morphemes), each character is reduplicated separately: piaoliang 漂亮 (beautiful) reduplicates as piaopiaoliangliang 漂漂亮亮.

Verb reduplication is also common in Standard Mandarin, conveying the meaning of informal and temporary character of the action. It is often used in imperative expressions, in which it lessens the degree of imperativity: zuozuo 坐坐 (sit (for a while)), dengdeng 等等 (wait (for a while)). Compound verbs are reduplicated as a whole word: xiuxixiuxi 休息休息 (rest (for a while)).

Noun reduplication is found in the southwestern dialect of Mandarin (linguistics), which is nearly absent in standard Mandarin (Guoyu). For instance, in Sichuan, baobao 包包 (handbag) is used whereas Beijing and Guoyu use bao'r 包儿. However, there are few nouns that can be reduplicated in Standard Mandarin, and reduplication denotes generalisation and uniformity: ren 人 (human being) and renren 人人 (everybody (in general, in common)), jiajiahuhu 家家户户 (every household (uniformly)) - in the latter jia and hu additionally duplicate the meaning of household, which is a common way of creating compound words in Chinese.

Japanese A small number of native Japanese language nouns have collective number forms produced by reduplication (possibly with rendaku). This formation is not productivity (linguistics) and is limited to a small set of nouns. Similarly to Standard Mandarin, the meaning is not that of a true plural, but collectives that refer to a large, given set of the same object.

Japanese also contains a large number of Japanese sound symbolism formed by reduplication of a syllable. These words include not only onomatopoeia, but also words intended to invoke non-auditory senses or psychological states.

Vietnamese Words called từ láy are found abundantly in Vietnamese. They are formed by repeating a part of a word to form new words, altering the meaning of the original word. Its effect is to sometimes either increase or decrease the intensity of the adjective, and is often used as a literary device (like alliteration) in poetry and other compositions, as well as in everyday speech.

Examples of reduplication increasing intensity:

Examples of reduplication decreasing intensity:

Nepalese A number of Nepalese nouns are formed by reduplication. As in other languages, the meaning is not that of a true plural, but collectives that refer to a set of the same or related objects, often in a particular situation.

For example, "rangi changi"* describes an object that is extremely or vividly colorful, like a crazy mix of colors and/or patterns, perhaps dizzying to the eye. The phrase "hina mina" means "scattered," like a large collection of objects spilled (or scampering, as in small animals) in all different directions. The basic Nepalese word for food, "khana" becomes "khana sana" to refer to the broad generality of anything served at a meal. Likewise, "chiya" or tea (conventionally made with milk and sugar) becomes "chiya siya": tea and snacks (such as biscuits or cookies). *Please note, these examples of Nepalese words are spelled with a simplified Latin transliteration only, not as exact spellings.

Malay and Indonesian In Malay language and Indonesian language, reduplication of a noun indicates the plural. For example, buku, meaning "book", when reduplicated as buku-buku (also written as buku²) means "books". Another example is anak for child and 'anak-anak' for children.

Reduplication of an adjective is also used to indicate plurality of the corresponding noun. For example: "Rumah di sini besar" means "The house here is big", while "Rumah di sini besar-besar" means "The houses here are big".

Sometimes, reduplication of nouns becomes adjectives in Indonesian. For examples,"om" 'uncle' as in "Gaya Ardi seperti om-om" means 'the Ardi's attitute is like an uncle', "orang-orang" 'people' means 'something like person behaviour'.

Farsi (Persian) Reduplication is a very common practice in Farsi, to the extent that there are jokes about it. Reduplication is particularly common in the city of Shiraz (SW of the country). One can further categorize the reduplicative words into "True" and "Quasi" ones. In true reduplicative words, both words are actually real words and have meaning in the language in which it is used. In quasi-reduplicative words, at least one of the words does not have a meaning. Some examples of true reduplicative words in Farsi are (using the best my knowledge in phonetics): "Khert-o-Pert" (Odds and ends); "Chert-o-Pert" (Nonsense); "Charand-o-Parand" (animals and birds); "Aab-o-Taab" (much detail). Among the quasi-reduplicative words are "Zan-o-man" (wife); "Daava-Maava" (Argument); "Tala-mala" (jewelry); and "Dari-Vari" (none-sense talk).

Khmer Khmer language uses reduplication for several purposes, including emphasis and pluralization. Khmer also uses a form of reduplication known as "synonym compounding", in which two phonologically distinct words with similar or identical meanings are combined, either to form the same term or to form a new term altogther.

Reduplicated babbling During the period 25-50 weeks after birth, all typically developing infants go through a stage of reduplicated or canonical babbling (Stark 198, Oller, 1980). Canonical babbling is characterized by repetition of identical or nearly identical consonant vowel combinations, such as 'nanana' or 'didididi'. It appears as a progression of language development as infants experiment with their vocal apparatus and home in on the sounds used in their native language. Canonical/reduplicated babbling also appears at a time when general rhythmic behavior, such as rhythmic hand banging and rhythmic kicking, appear. Canonical babbling is distinguished from earlier syllabic and vocal play, which has less of a structure.

See also

External links

Bibliography



Reduplication - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Reduplication, in linguistics, is a morphological process by which the root or stem of a word, or only part of it, is repeated. Reduplication is used both in inflections to convey ...

Shm-reduplication - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shm-reduplication is a form of reduplication in which the original word or its first syllable (the base) is repeated with the copy (the reduplicant) beginning with shm-, IPA [ʃm].

Reduplication
A list of reduplicated phrases - with meanings and origins. ... Reduplication. The coinage of new words and phrases into English has been greatly enhanced by the pleasure we get ...

Definition: reduplication from Online Medical Dictionary
The Online Medical Dictionary is a searchable dictionary of definitions from medicine, science and technology.

Reduplication - Cambridge University Press
Reduplication Doubling in Morphology Series: Cambridge Studies in Linguistics (No. 106) Sharon Inkelas University of California, Berkeley Cheryl Zoll

Reduplication
Reduplication In his course "Six Problems in Phonology and Their Solution" at LSA 2005 Summer Institute at MIT, Morris Halle presented an analysis of reduplication that is ...

reduplication - definition of reduplication in the Medical dictionary ...
Definition of reduplication in the Medical Dictionary. reduplication explanation. Information about reduplication in Free online English dictionary. What is reduplication?

reduplication cataract definition of reduplication cataract in the ...
Encyclopedia article about reduplication cataract. Information about reduplication cataract in the Columbia Encyclopedia, Computer Desktop Encyclopedia, computing dictionary.

reduplication cataract - Hutchinson encyclopedia article about ...
Hutchinson encyclopedia article about reduplication cataract. reduplication cataract. Information about reduplication cataract in the Hutchinson encyclopedia.

Reduplication in Mauritian Creole, with notes on reduplication in ...
Reduplication in Mauritian Creole, with notes on reduplication in Reunion Creole. Baker, Peter (2003) Reduplication in Mauritian Creole, with notes on reduplication in Reunion ...

 

Reduplication



 
Copyright © 2008 Hintcenter.com - All rights reserved.
Home | Terms of Use | Privacy Policy
All Trademarks belong to their repective owners. Many aspects of this page are used under
commercial commons license from Yahoo!